The Mughal Empire: The old India.

The bazaar at Lahore, E. L. Weeks, 1889.

The British Empire, through the East India Company, had started trading with India using a number of trade stations as far back as 1615. During the first century and a half, this was a peaceful economical enterprise, occurring with and alongside the great Mughal Empire. However, since 1757 this relationship became more tense (to say the least), while the East India Company gradually began taking land from the Mughals, up until growing ever weaker, the Mughals finally lost all power in India by the year 1857 and the Indian Mutiny.

So what was the Mughal Empire, how did the two empires co-exist, and what eventually brought to the first crumbling into the pages of history, while the second took over, eventually coming to rule the whole of India and a quarter of the worlds population.

Mongols & Mughals

Mughal India at the end of the
17th century.

To someone who is new to Central Asian history, the term 'Mughal Empire' may sound very similar to a much more known empire: 'The Mongol Empire'. This is no mere coincidence, the first Mughal emperor and founder Zahir Udin Muhammad Babur belonged to the dynastic families of both the 'Timurid Empire' (being the great grandson of Timur) and 'Mongol Empire' (being directly descendant of Genghis Khan). At the time of it's formation in 1526, the Mughals saw themselves as a continuation of the Timur dynasty; thus seeing themselves as the Timur Empire, the name Mughal has been in use from a later time (the 19th century) and refers to Babur's other side of his family and Mongol heritage.

The Mughals ruled a Muslim feudal kingdom which was forged in battle, however the empire was known for it's peaceful and religiously tolerant rule. Stretching at it's peak from the mountains of Afghanistan, the Himalayas and encompassing all but the very bottom part of the Indian sub-continent, it included a number of peoples and religions predominantly Hinduism. The Mughals brought a united rule to India, creating for the  first time an idea of India as one political entity, albeit somewhat different than the borders we know today. The rulers had brought with them a Persian and Muslim flavor to India, building vast monuments, palaces, forts and gardens all over India (especially in the north), introducing new festivals, ideas and administrative systems.

Explorers, traders & conquerors

Mughal soldiers at the gate of Agra,
the Mughal capital, E. L. Weeks.

During it's first few years, the rule and control of the young empire had not yet solidified, with many threats coming from both the tribes in Afghanistan and the small kingdoms surrounding the empire. The second emperor had not managed to hold the lands his father had conquered, but eventually managed to take them back during the 1550's. However, it was Akbar the Great grandson of Babur, who stabilized and expanded the Empire, creating a solid rule and stabilizing the empire. By the time of his death in 1605, the empire had expanded to incorporate all of northern India from the Bay of Bengal, along the Ganges river and well into Afghanistan, including parts of central India. Also by the time of his death, a number of European powers had developed an interest in direct trade with India, setting up trading ports in the western and eastern coasts of the sub continent.

In 1615, the British had joined other European empires in forming the trading port at Surat, at that same year the first formal British ambassador to India Sir Thomas Roe, had met with the Moghal emperor Jahangir. This was to be the first formal meeting between the empire with would eventually give birth to a complex relationship between the two, where at the end only one would remain standing. With growing trading power in local European trading ports, so too the power and reach of the Mughals grew threw out the 17th century. This era was to be the golden era of the empire, enjoying almost unrivalled expansion, economical and great cultural growth, by the time of Urangzeb's death - the last of the great Moghal emperors - in 1707, the empire had reached it's zenith in both power and size.

The crumbling of an empire

During the first half of the 18th century, with the European foothold in India growing slowly, the Moghal Empire started on it's course of decline. Internal revolts had undermined the Moghal rule, along side external invasions and threats, these coupled with a succession of weak and unpopular rulers attempting to hold their ancestors legacy, had all brought the once great empire to it's demise by the year 1857.

The British capture the last hire to the Moghal throne
 Bahadur Shah II during the Indian Mutiny, 1857.

During the last century of Mughal rule, the British became a force to be reckoned with in the Indian sphere. They had slowly secured their position (through the governing of the East India Company) after a series of wars in Europe, effecting their standing in face of the other European trading missions in south Asia (notably the French, Dutch and Portuguese). They had also waged a number of campaigns against Indian kingdoms throughout the end of the 18th century and early 19th century, thus increasing their political power and land possessions in the sub-continent.

By the time the Indian Mutiny had broke, the East India Company was the dominant power in India, through direct rule and political leverage. The once great Mughal Empire was all but over by this time, while the last ruler Bahadur Shah II received a pension from the British. During the Mutiny however, the mutineers had turned to the memory of Mughal rule one last time, conquering Delhi and securing Bahadur as the true emperor and king of the short lived "free India". This attempt last only a few months, the Delhi was captured back by the British, the Shah sent to final exile in Rangoon (Burma) and his sons (who were prominent mutiny leaders) executed. Thus, the British crushing of the mutiny is considered to be the official end of the Mughal Empire.

Legacy

The Taj Mahal, one of India's greatest symbols, built
by Shah Jahan during the mid 17th century.

In the Indian heritage and nationalist discourse, the Mughal Empire is viewed today very positively, as one of the most important truly 'Indian' unified national entities defining the last chapter of Indian history just prior to the British rule of India. Many of the great sites and building around India were built by the Mughals, or during their time. Indians today can look back fondly at the Indian culture and arts that flourished during this time, albeit with much Persian and Muslim influence.

However, perhaps more than any thing else, the religious and political tolerant nature of Mughal rule stands at the hart of the empire's heritage today. Many Indian nationalists have tried to maintain that very tolerant approach to the forming Indian state, this was not very successful during the Indian Independence in 1947, and subsequent partition into India and Muslim Pakistan. Today however, those lessons seem to hold some water in the creation of a calm, tolerant and generally accepting atmosphere in modern day India.

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Further Reading

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_Empire
• http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/396125/Mughal-dynasty

The Indian Mutiny: The day the Empire was almost lost.

The many names given to the events in India which started in May 1857, offer a clue to their political complexities. Was it a mutiny, uprising, military rebellion or even a war of independence? ..well, that depends on who you ask.

A statue of Rani Lakshmibai, a popular
leader of the Mutiny.

At the base of this story, we have a large number of native military units serving the East India Company's British rule in India, which had lit up in revolt against the British soldiers, civilians, institutions and rule in India. There are a large number of reasons to this revolt, but probably you could say the main reason creating tension and eventually reaching revolt, was the British distant and condescending rule of the Indian peoples.

The elements which rose in revolt are also important to note; these were Indian native units (under British command), mostly serving the Bengal Army (part of three armies serving in India). During the first days of the mutiny, these units travelled around their bases and towns, killing European inhabitants along side their British officers. Theses native military units were soon joined by political figures who had their own reasons to see the British go, eventually the rebellion was led by these figures, view today in Indian historiography as Indian heroes of the First war of Independence. Only a small number of local civilians had joined the mutiny, mostly coming from the areas controlled by the mutineers.

Native 'Madrass Sappers', serving in the East
India Company, 1857.

So, we see the Mutiny was mostly contained to the north of India, and mostly conducted by former British serving native military units, aided by a number of prominent political figures and a handful of local civilians. The major fighting areas were in large cities along the Ganges valley such as Delhi (the former seat of Mughal rule in India), Kanpur and especially Lucknow (the capital of Awadh, which was claimed by the British a few months before the outbreak of mutiny).

I don't intend on writing the course of the mutiny in details, there are plenty of available resources which offer in depth details of the mutiny, some of which I will link at the bottom of the page. I can offer here a general frame of the events, for the sake of general understanding. The Mutiny had started to simmer for some months prior to May 1857, but had eventually exploded on the 10th of May when the 11th and 20th Native Infantry regiments had revolted against the British command in Meerut, in response to what they felt to be an unjust trial and imprisonment of members of the 3rd Native Horse regiment (after they had refused fire practise).

The Indian Sepoys (native soldiers) went on a rampage against British targets around town, and from there they walked to Delhi and took the fort together with other rebelling units in Delhi. At this time, all around northern India similar revolts took place, most of them being contained by local loyal units, in other places massacres occurred and local British government was overthrown. In Delhi, the mutineers eventually mounted a force of some 42,000 soldiers and crowned the hire to the Moghal throne; the 76 year old Bahadur Shah II, so to be politically united. 

The ruins of the residency house in Lucknow

The British took a few days to recover from the shock of events, and to plan an attempt to regain their control over the north of the sub continent. On the 8th of June, some 600 cavalry and 2,300 British and loyal native soldiers arrived at the walls of Delhi under the command of major-general Henry Bernard (later replaced by Archdale Wilson), and commenced a siege of the city. Delhi eventually fell in mid September, only after sufficient reinforcements had arrived (bringing the total number of British and loyal Indian troops to some 12,000 soldiers).

At the time, in Cawnpore, some 800 British civilians and soldiers had been massacred by the 25th of June after holding off the mutineers for three weeks, and being promised safe travel outside of the city. This act of brutality and cruelty had created a deep anger within the British fighting the mutineers and the British public back home, bringing increased brutality against any person suspected of being a mutineer.

In Lucknow, the British had barricaded themselves in the residency building and managed to hold on against waves of attacks, only to be relieved after a number of failed attempts on the 23rd of November. By the end of 1857, all major areas of conflict were cleared, with large forces of mutineers defeated, while large armies of mutineers under command of a number of prominent figures (such as Tatia Tope and Nana Sahib) had moved further south taking Jahnsi and Gwalior. During the first months of 1858, a British force was assembled under the command of Hugh Rose, which swept around central India, fighting rebel forces and strongholds. By June 1858, the Mutiny was all but over with a few areas of trouble, and a number of mutineers crossing into Nepal, and eventually being handed back to the British authorities.

Now we are left with the question of how was this mutiny so dangerous to British rule in India and to the Empire in whole? How could such a dramatic even occur to such a strong Empire? Why did it take over a year to contain? And, how did the Mutiny effect British rule in India.

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Firstly, we must remember that India was ruled not directly by the British Government and Crown, but by the East India trading Company. The company (as with any economical entity) was concerned with trading and making money, not so much with the delicate process of ruling and governing. The military force that served the company consisted predominantly of local native units serving under British officers and command, along side these were a small number of British units serving a few months at a time in India (called the British Army in India). Not believing there to be any problems with this arrangement, military units were stationed almost randomly (it would seem..), some important cities with only 2 or 3 native battalions to guard them, others with no military presence.

British troops during the mutiny.

Prior to the outbreak of the mutiny, the British army had not changed much since the Napoleonic Wars some 50 years before, the Crimean War which raged a couple of years before the mutiny had raised some serious issues with the army's structure and command. The British Army needed a modernising makeover, it was not ready for a campaign the size of the Indian Mutiny. Further more, the enemy was trained by the British, using British tactics and technology, and with the rebelling units there were of course less units to fight. The only immediate answer was to send for British units coming from all around the empire. This meant it would take some months before there was any real chance at bringing an end to the mutiny, and in the meanwhile, loyal native units along side British units in India would have to try as best they could to break the mutiny.

Now that we understand why the mutiny was so dangerous to British rule, why it erupted and why it caused a complex time consuming effort to break it, we are still left with the question of why was it so dramatic? Moreover why - in my opinion - loosing the fight against the mutiny and thus loosing a large part of India would have changed the course of the empire, and perhaps even bring to it's early demise.

A short video explaining the Indian Mutiny.

More on that later...

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Further Reading

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857
• http://www.britishempire.co.uk/forces/armycampaigns/indiancampaigns/mutiny/mutiny.htm